Moray, James Stuart, Earl of. c1531-70. Scottish Regent 1567-. Promoted Reformation after Mary’s abdication.

Mugwumps. 1884. US Republican reform faction. In England, politically neutral voters.

Nicholas of Cusa. 1401-64. German. Proposed heliocentricity, calendar reform 1429. De Docta Ignorantia 1440. “A learned man is one who is aware of his own ignorance.”

Ninety-five Theses. 1517. Document Luther nailed to Wittenburg church door. Began Reformation.

Obregón, Alvaro. 1880-1928. Reforming Mexican President 1920-24. Peace after civil war.

Occam, William. c1280-1349. English Franciscan Nominalist philosopher. “Science is about things, philosophy about terms and concepts”. Occam’s razor: “It is vain to do with more, what can be done with fewer” (Science or Logic). Incompatibility of knowledge and faith, 1332. Opposed Aquinas Aristotelian realism. “Universal ideas exist only in the mind”. Influenced Reformation.

Oecolampadius, Johannes. 1482-1531. German Reformation theologian. Drafted Confession of Basel 1531.

Oglethorpe, James. 1696-1785. English. Penal reform. Founded Georgia 1733 as haven for bankrupts.

Old Believers. 17C- Russian sect vs Nikon’s reforms.

Oscar I. 1799-1859. King of Norway and Sweden 1844-. Liberal reforms.

Oxford, Provisions of. 1258-66. Reforms barons forced on Henry III. Annulled, modified. Led to Provisions of Westminster, Barons War.

Paul I. 1754-1801. Russian Emperor. Reversed reforms, isolated Russia. Assassinated.

Perestroika. 1986. Gorbachev’s policy of government and economic reform.

Peterloo Massacre. 1819. Peaceful Manchester demonstration for parliamentary reform suppressed by cavalry. 500 casualties. Ultra tories limit freedom of press, assembly.

Philip II. 1527-98. Spanish king. Revolt, 1579. Married Mary I of England. Sent Armada against Elizabeth I, 1588. Counter-Reformation champion.

Plimsoll, Samuel. 1824-98. English reformer. Defined ship loading mark.

Pole, Reginald. 1500-58. Archbishop of Canterbury. Opposed Reformation.

Populist Movement. 1890s. US agrarian reform coalition.

Prague Spring. 1968. Czech reforms face Soviet intervention. Dubcek.

Progressive Bloc. 1915-17. Russian liberals urging reforms.

Protestantism. Christian doctrine based on faith instead of church dispensations. Reformation. Presbyterianism. Calvin. Luther.

Radom, Confederation of. 1767. Polish nobles oppose king’s reforms leading to Partition.

Ramus, Petrus. 1515-72. French humanist, logician. Reforms of Aristotelian logic.

Reagan, Ronald. 1911-2004. US actor, Republican President 1981-9. Tax reform. Strong economy. Aid to Nicaragua Contras. Irangate scandal. Fall of Soviet Empire.

Reform Bills. England. 1832: Russell redistributes Parliamentary seats, enfranchises renters. 1867: Disraeli enfranchises workers in towns. 1884: Gladstone enfranchises agricultural workers. Representation of People Acts.

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