Torres Vedras, Lines. 1808-14. Fortifications protect Portugal from French invasion.

Torricelli, Evangelista. 1608-47. Italian physicist. mercury barometer, vacuum 1643.

Torun, Treaty. 1466. Poland, Teutonic Knights. Poland regains Prussia. Knights acknowledge Polish sovereignty.

Tory. Term (Irish = outlaw) applied 1679 to Duke of York supporters. English Royalist political party 1690-1830, refounded as Conservative Party 1833. In US: =colonists loyal to Britain during American Revolution.

Toscanini, Arturo. 1867-1957. Italian virtuoso conductor of Verdi, Beethoven.

Tostig. -1066. Brother of English Harold II. Aided William the Conqueror and Norway’s Harold III invasions of England.

Totalitarianism. Government which tries to fully control life of citizens. Fascist Italy. Nazi Germany. Communist Russia.

Totila. -552. Ostrogoth king. Reconquered Italy.

Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de. 1864- 1901. Painter of Paris nightlife. Moulin Rouge 1891.

Toungoo. 15-18C Burmese dynasty.

Tour d’Argent. Paris restaurant where Henry IV learned the use of the fork.

Toussaint L’Ouverture, Francois. c1743-1803. Haitian rebel. Helped French expel Britain, Spain. Emancipated slaves. Established black governed French protectorate.

Tower of London. 1066- Palace for William I. Used as prison and garrison at later dates. White Tower 1078.

Townshend Act. 1767-70. Reasserted English authority in American colonies. Import duties.

Towton, Battle. 1461. York victory in War of Roses. Henry VI fled England. Edward IV took crown.

Toynbee, Arnold. 1852-83. English economist, social reformer on behalf of the working class. The Industrial Revolution 1884.

Toynbee, Arnold J. 1889-75. English historian on the cyclicality of civilizations. Study of History 1934-61.

Trade Disputes Act. 1906. British unions immune from suits against members’ activities.

Trade Unions. Legalized: 1824 Britain. 1834 France. 1869 Germany. 1875 British legalized picketing.

Trades Union Congress. TUC. 1868. Organization of British unions sponsoring Labour Party. ICFTU.

Trafalgar, Battle. 1805. Nelson’s victory over the French and Spanish fleets. British naval superiority secured. Nelson killed. Ends Napoleon’s plans to invade England.

Trajan. 53-117. Spanish Roman Emperor 98-. First bridge across Danube. Column 106. Aqueduct 109. Extended Suez Canal.

Transcendental Meditation. Based on Vedas. Modern movement established by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 1958.

Transcendentalism. 1835-55. US philosophy. Man’s divinity and goodness. Insight over logic. Opposed to authority. Thoreau. Emerson. Channing.

Transcontinental Treaty. 1819. Spain renounces Florida, Oregon to US. Keeps Texas.

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